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Classic Century
The Missed Opportunity of Physics in the Twentieth Century
Sir Arthur Eddington not only thought that a belief in God was consistent with scientific pursuits, but he reflected these ideas in his work in physics. In 1928, he published a book, The Nature of the Physical World, in which he stated that "The stuff of the world is mind stuff.......The mind-stuff of the world is, of course, something more general than our individual conscious minds...... The mind-stuff is not spread out in space and time; these are part of the cyclic scheme ultimately derived out of it. But we must presume that in some other way or aspect it can be differentiated into parts. Only here and there does it rise to the level of consciousness, but from such islands proceeds all knowledge. Besides the direct knowledge contained in each self-knowing unit, there is inferential knowledge. The latter includes our knowledge of the physical world...It is difficult for the matter-of-fact physicist to accept the view that the substratum of everything is of a mental character."
Sir James Jeans, who spent many years feuding with Eddington over cosmological questions, nevertheless represented a similar philosophy. In the Mysterious Universe", published in 1930, he expressed these views very plainly. "Today, there is a wide measure of agreement, which on the physical side of science approaches almost to unanimity, that the stream of knowledge is heading towards a non-mechanical reality." By 'non-mechanical' did he mean simply that Newtonian determinism was being replaced by the probabilities of quantum mechanics? His meaning becomes clear when he goes on to say, "Mind no longer appears as an accidental intruder into the realm of matter; we are beginning to suspect that we ought rather to hail it as the creator and governor of the realm of matter." He was referring to the non-material reality of 'mind'.
In a newspaper interview in London he said that he inclined "to the idealistic theory that consciousness is fundamental and that the universe is derivative from consciousness, not consciousness from the material universe."
In "The Universe Around Us", published in 1929, Jeans describes the universe as a "finite picture whose dimensions are a certain amount of space and a certain amount of time, the protons and electrons are the streaks of paint which define the picture against its space-time background. Traveling as far back in time as we can brings us not to the creation of the picture but to its edge: the creation of the picture lies as much outside the picture as the artist is outside the canvas. On this view, discussing the creation of the universe in terms of time and space is like trying to discover the artist and the action of painting by going to the edge of the canvas. This brings us very near to those philosophical systems which regard the universe as a thought in the mind of the Creator, thereby reducing all discussion of material creation to futility."
The kind of thinking that is involved here is illustrated clearly by an encounter between Eddington and Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who was then studying at Cambridge and whose mathematical theories led to later work on black holes. Eddington rejected Chandrasekhar's purely mathematical derivations completely, believing that this approach was far too abstract to have any relevance to the actual physical world.
How many people were there then in physics who thought like that? Perhaps Jeans exaggerated a little when he spoke of a near unanimity of views leading to such a non-material reality, but there must have been a substantial number of scientists who generally agreed with him and Eddington. What happened to all these philosophical idealists in physics? The short answer is, of course, World War II. By the end of the 1930's, physicists were divided into two camps, one working for the Allies (what Hitler called "Jewish science", because of people like Einstein, Teller and Oppenheimer) and the other working for the Fascists (headed by Heisenberg). Idealism was forgotten in the desperate drive to develop the atom bomb before the other side managed the trick. Physics was taken over by the state and, as soon as the Nazis were defeated, the same policies were used against the Soviet scare. By the time all these political imperatives were over, physics emerged as a very different science.
For one thing, quantum mechanics was now recognized as the definitive mathematical framework for all physics. Arthur Eddington had been the great explainer and popularizer of relativity, which then was regarded without question as the greatest advance in the science since Galileo and Newton. In the later twentieth century however, quantum theory moved to the forefront of theory and research. The changes it brought to our view of the world are so deep and far-reaching that they cannot even remotely be summarized in this short article. The purpose here is the narrow one of tracing the concepts of reality in physics as they developed over this period of transition.
The physicists who represented Idealist views in the 1930s were well aware of all the developments in relativity and quantum theory which had led to the enormous changes to classical Newtonian physics earlier in the twentieth century. The solid reality of physical objects, unquestioned during the reign of Newton, had evaporated when it was discovered that the atom was not the final, indivisible matter particle. Subatomic particles did not behave at all like ordinary matter and their behavior could not be explained by classical mechanics. Scientific determinism, the philosophy of cause-and-effect causality, had to be abandoned. The new reality of nature was based on new quantum concepts that included probability and the particle-wave duality of matter.
By the 1930s, all these dramatic developments in physics were already well advanced and the Idealist physicists did not quarrel with any of these new ideas. Where they differed sharply from mainstream thought was in their views on 'mind' as the origin of matter. Clearly, mind was not an abstraction for them, it was a reality. In fact, they thought that the purely abstract mathematical approach to theoretical physics was, in some ways, too abstruse for an understanding of what was going on, especially if the mathematics dealt with more dimensions, say, than our senses were capable of perceiving. This mind reality, for Eddington, was the "substratum" behind the physical manifestations of matter within nature, which rose only 'here and there' to the level of consciousness. These 'islands' then represented visible nature, from which our consciousness could infer knowledge through our senses.
Clearly, there were two levels of reality involved in this type of thinking. One was our conscious knowledge of nature, which needed our sense perception. In platonic terms, this kind of reality was called subjective because it required our presence and participation. Plato thought the kind of knowledge that could be obtained from such a study of nature was of a very inferior kind, fleeting, transitory and derivative. The other kind of reality was the one that did not rise to the level of consciousness, the substratum behind the physical appearances. This kind of reality did not require our presence and our sense perceptions were not suitable for investigating these origins behind the appearances. Plato called this kind of reality objective: it represented the whole truth and reality of the creation, the only real knowledge that was not transitory. For Plato and for the Idealist physicists it was the reality of the "mind", that is the mind of the Creator.
As already mentioned, this kind of thinking did not survive the atom and hydrogen bombs. The purely mathematical, abstract approach, which Eddington found so unappealing in the work of Chandrasekhar, now reigned supreme. However, this approach, which led to the development of both relativity and quantum theory, has now reached some speculations which require only a slight nudge to demonstrate the need for the two kinds of reality referred to here.
Take for instance Murray Gell-Mann, one of the titans of contemporary physics, who among many other accomplishments discovered the particle which he then named the quark. Together with an associate, James Hartle, he has been working for some years now on something called 'quantum decoherence'. Quantum mathematics describes multiple universes of multiple possibilities and symmetries. Physicists like Hugh Everett, as long ago as the 1950s, argued that these must all exist as realities. However, when we make an observation, we get only one result, not a cloud of multiple quantum possibilities. According to Gell-Mann/Hartle, these multiple realities of the quantum fog condense into various chains of events, each chain approximately observing the cause-and-effect rules of classical physics. This means that people perceive the world as classical and predictable, rather than quantum and probabilistic, because they occupy a realm where predictable patterns have decohered from the coherent cloud of quantum possibilities. Each such chain of events would constitute a 'consistent history'.
For Gell-Mann, the decohered consistent history that we inhabit is the world of nature, which contains the visible physical phenomena whose behavior is very adequately explained by classical physics. These bodies are made up of particles and the wave-particle duality which, in theory, includes both large and small matter manifestations is not a practical factor in visible nature. The wave part of matter is important only when matter is of the size of particles. The waveform is not directly perceivable, so particles can be considered as the only constituents of visible matter. However, on the particle level, the waveform of matter is very important and, when the particles cross the diving line between our decohered world and the cohered quantum cloud beyond it, they seem to change into the waveform. This can be seen when matter crosses this dividing line from the other direction and the waveform instantly appears to 'collapse' into the particle form on being observed or measured.
How 'real' then are these particles that exhibit this wave-particle duality, which appears to collapse into the latter form on simple observation? Here is what Werner Heisenberg, another titan of physics in the twentieth century, had to say about particles (he was the author of the iconic Uncertainty Principle in the 1920s and later of the 'matrix mechanics' mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, based on particles, as against the 'wave mechanics' formulation, invented by Erwin Schrödinger). "In the experiments about atomic events we have to do with things and facts, the phenomena that are just as real as any phenomena in daily life. But the atoms or elementary particles themselves are not real; they form a world of potentialities or possibilities rather than of things or facts."
About the Author
21st century bands with a classic rock/psychedelic sound?
theirs already alot i know so youl probly tell me ones i know of.
-Fuxa
-Mesopotamia
-Ozric Tentacles (not "classic" psychedelia, but psychedelia nonetheless)
-Bark Psychosis
-Boards of Canada
#2 Notre Dame vs. #1 Army - 1946